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超越希腊与罗马:全球古代史的兴起

History 59 Carlos Noreña 2026/7/20 4145 字 原文 ↗

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公元前51年克利奥帕特拉成为埃及女王时,她统治疆域内最古老的金字塔——建于公元前27世纪——已经矗立了2500多年。克利奥帕特拉是古代最具标志性的人物之一,然而从时间上看,她与我们当下的距离,比她与那些最早的金字塔的距离还要近500年。

这一事实勾勒出一段既遥远又熟悉的漫长"古代史"。克利奥帕特拉是连接古罗马一众传奇人物的纽带:她是尤利乌斯·凯撒的情人,马克·安东尼的恋人与盟友,更是屋大维——未来的奥古斯都——的死敌。屋大维正是凭借击败安东尼与她的战绩,在罗马建立起世袭君主制。她的女王身份还将她与古典时代另一位传奇人物亚历山大大帝联系在一起。亚历山大以惊人之势征服了当时世界上最庞大的阿契美尼德波斯帝国,为克利奥帕特拉继承的埃及马其顿王国奠定了基础。公元前334年至公元前323年的亚历山大东征,还推动了古典希腊文化、文学、哲学与艺术——西方长期视之为自身文化核心遗产——在中东大部及中亚腹地的传播。希腊文化也传遍了埃及,而彼时那些古老金字塔仍雄踞沙漠天际线,成为后世古典标志性建筑的先驱,比如公元前5世纪中期建造的雅典帕特农神庙,或是公元80年建成的罗马斗兽场。

当我们大多数人想到"古代史"——如果确实会想到的话——最先浮现的往往是这些地中海地区的古老遗迹、君主与将领。如今,古典传统仍在延续:《国家地理》的重磅封面报道、层出不穷的"剑与 sandals"(古装史诗)电影与剧集、日常提及的"修昔底德陷阱"或"苏格拉底式提问法"、关于古罗马帝国的迷因(meme),而最普遍的是公共领域无处不在的新古典主义建筑。希腊-罗马式的宏伟建筑承载着一系列稳固的联想与价值。随便走进一座西方首都,都会看到由大理石柱、三角楣饰、浮雕与穹顶构成的城市迷宫,这些源自希腊与罗马的共通且易于辨识的建筑语言,传递着不容置疑的传统、正统与权威信号。埃德加·爱伦·坡在1845年修订版短诗《致海伦》中写下的"光荣属于希腊,/伟大属于罗马",至今仍是我们集体意识中鲜活的理想。

直到不久前,这种想象中的古代世界——简言之,以古典希腊、罗马为核心,偶尔将目光投向埃及——不仅是普通大众的认知,也是专业学者研究的范畴。至少在大多数英语国家,"古代史"默认等同于"地中海古代史"的观念,已经延续了数代人。但我们正处在视角剧变的临界点,一个更宏大、更广阔、更引人入胜的"古代世界"图景正在形成。

推动这一视角拓展的部分原因,是越来越多证据显示,古代地中海地区与非洲-欧亚大陆的遥远区域存在联系。例如,我们现在知道,跨撒哈拉贸易可追溯至公元最初两个世纪——罗马帝国鼎盛时期。当时,罗马的葡萄酒、橄榄油、银器等商品,主要通过活跃在利比亚西南部沙漠的商人,换取宝石、象牙与奴隶。大量罗马钱币在帝国疆域之外被发现,范围从斯堪的纳维亚一直延伸到印度。一份公元2世纪中期的埃及纸草文献记录了两份进口合同的细节,货物来自印度西南部喀拉拉邦的穆吉里斯港,经海路运往亚历山大港,包括胡椒、珍珠、丝绸与宝石。这一切都表明,公元最初几个世纪存在一个跨越帝国的广阔商业网络。

地中海古代史学者正越来越多地关注"全球古代史"

这种跨大陆联系也存在于地中海盆地之外,揭示了延伸至南亚与东亚的重叠贸易网络。例如,在阿富汗北部蒂拉丘地发现的公元1世纪宝藏中,出土了数量惊人的金币、珠宝与其他高价值文物,其中既有受希腊风格影响的器物,也有源自印度(象牙制品)与中国汉代(青铜镜)的物品。这些文物成为大英博物馆名为"阿富汗:古代世界的十字路口"重磅特展的核心展品。再往东,在通往华北平原的河西走廊起点、敦煌绿洲附近,发现了公元4世纪初粟特商人写给乌兹别克斯坦撒马尔罕收件人的信件,详细记录了中亚与东亚之间贵金属、香料与纺织品(包括丝绸)的贸易情况。这些古老的商业网络甚至可以追溯到东亚太平洋沿岸。最引人注目的发现来自中国南方港口城市广州:公元前2世纪中期(公元前137年-公元前122年)南越国君主赵眜的墓葬中,出土了多件异域物品,包括非洲象牙与一件带有波斯风格纹饰及工艺的银盒。

受这些长距离联系线索的启发,地中海古代史学者正逐渐跳出希腊与罗马的局限,转而研究"全球古代史"。这一范畴不仅涵盖传统"古代世界"的核心——地中海盆地及其大陆腹地,还包括整个非洲-欧亚大陆(在最宽泛的定义中,甚至包括大洋洲与美洲世界)。学术会议、研讨会、出版物、大学研究中心——简言之,整个学术知识生产体系——已开始为这一激动人心的新领域搭建框架。不过,这种新的全球古代史究竟包含什么,又如何与21世纪的关切相关,仍是有待解答的问题。

新全球古代史的核心背景是跨大陆的非洲-欧亚大陆宏观区域,尤其是从地中海盆地经伊朗高原、印度次大陆延伸至中国太平洋沿岸的广阔温带地带。陆路、海路与内河运输系统共同构成了复杂的交通网络,覆盖了这片区域的大部分地区,促成了上文所述的各类交流。该系统的主干是一条东西走向的走廊,由一系列相互重叠的陆路线路组成。这些陆路连接安纳托利亚与整个西亚新月沃土(黎凡特、幼发拉底河与底格里斯河流域)至伊朗高原,再经兴都库什山脉通道延伸至中亚。从那里,多条线路继续向东穿过塔里木盆地与河西走廊(中国甘肃省),而后沿华北平原的河谷南下,抵达古代东亚的主要人口中心。这条连接地中海与东亚的通道何时全面启用尚难定论,但我们知道,至少从公元前1世纪起,中国丝绸已进入地中海市场,只是其具体运输路线仍难以确定。不过,我们可以将这条东西走廊视为古代的"丝绸之路"。

印度洋堪称前现代非洲-欧亚大陆世界体系的地理核心

古代"丝绸之路"的概念极具画面感,引人遐想,但在促进长距离交流方面,海上联系的作用更为重要。工业时代之前,水运始终比陆路更廉价、快捷,对跨大陆长途运输而言,这种成本优势尤为关键。内陆水域,尤其是地中海及其"前厅"黑海,加上纵横交错的可通航河流及其支流,为欧亚大陆西部及周边地区的通行提供了便利。早在公元前2千纪,我们就能追踪到黄金、白银与锡从大西洋沿岸及欧洲大陆产地,经地中海运往需求旺盛的安纳托利亚与西亚的水上运输路线。同样,在东亚,主要东西走向的河流系统——加上公元前1千纪晚期修建的人工水道与运河——推动了粮食、盐、铁等大宗商品从产地到消费地的常规运输。

欧亚大陆两侧的开阔大洋当时尚未成为跨区域交通的主要通道——真正的全球网络要到大航海时代才形成。相比之下,印度洋堪称前现代非洲-欧亚大陆世界体系的地理核心,尤其是阿拉伯海,是至关重要的交通枢纽。它通过红海、波斯湾(以及短途陆路与内河航线),将地中海沿岸与非洲东海岸、阿拉伯半岛南部、印度河流域(进而连接横跨青藏高原的东西陆路)及南亚连接起来。学者将阿拉伯海及其沿岸区域称为"印度洋世界",在古代这里是一个充满活力的移动与交流空间。穆吉里斯纸草文献记录的长途货物运输,正是在这一背景下发生;叙利亚中部的 caravan city( caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan city, caravan 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